The Essentials of Instructional Design

Chapter 1 – What is instructional design?

Instructional Design as a Discipline:

Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies.

Instructional Design as a Science:

Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity.

Instructional Design as Reality:

Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion.

Models:

• Merrill's First Principle of Instruction
• Dick & Carey System's Approach Model
• Kemp Model
• Merrill's Pebble-in-the-Pond Model
• Successive Approximation Model
• ADDIE
• Postmodern
  • Society is past the point where there are a limited number of authorities available to a classroom student. The modern classroom had two authoritative sources: the teacher and the textbook. This situation no longer exists because students have access to many other sources, including the internet, television, and, in some cases, friends and family who are more educated than the teacher is (Hlynka, 1995).
  • No longer can there be an agreed-upon, single type of well-educated individual. Determining a curriculum and including all important artistic and scientific works that would be appropriate for all individuals is impossible.
  • The currently popular cognitive paradigm—constructivism—does not recognize or advocate a traditional, linear educational sequence. With information available from a variety of sources outside the classroom, learners will inevitably deviate from a linear instructional model by observing and reacting to other examples, non-examples, and divergent examples of the concepts they study in school.
  • No single, objective truth exists. Truth is a construct that is based on an individual's personal interpretation or on the consensus of a group of people for their purposes. The truth—also known as "the right answer"—may change depending on the context and the individuals involved.

Chapter 2 – Understanding how people think and learn

Cognition is the mental process of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. In essence, cognition includes all of the brain's mental input and output. Cognition encompasses basic activities, from using language and math functions during a trip to the hardware store, to making complex decisions such as selecting between two job offers, to writing a creative story, to being able to understand another person's perspective.

• Memory - Memory is a set of active processes that encode information. Memory places information into "packages" or "packets," making information easier to recall and allowing it to be associated with related items already in memory. Memory also involves storing information. Part of this process is the constant rearranging of what has been stored in order for that new knowledge to be integrated with what has already been stored. Additionally, it allows for locating and retrieving information as it is needed.
• Mental Power - is the basic energy that supports mental activity. It refers to how much mental work can be performed during a specific period of time. 
• Executive abilities - Executive abilities include such higher-order thinking skills as being able to anticipate future needs and planning accordingly, the ability to set priorities, and being able to self-correct and regulate actions
• Metacognition - is the ability to control one's own cognitive processes. It is often referred to as the practice of "thinking about thinking." In using metacognition, an individual takes an introspective look at the thought process that she has gone through. It allows her to critically consider how she arrived at certain ideas, concepts, and thoughts.

Instructional designers tend to look at thinking from a pragmatic point of view, asking themselves, What do we need to know about thinking and the studies done on thinking that will help develop efficient and effective instructional interventions? It is no surprise that the majority of instructional designers are considered to be eclectic—borrowing from different perspectives and using what works for a given situation to produce desired results. Instructional designers tend to take a systems theory approach when it comes to looking at thinking (and learning) by exploring it from several different perspectives, rather than focusing narrowly on one aspect of what thinking is or is not.

In examining the definition of learning we propose, two very different types of changes can take place when learning occurs. The first is a change in behavior; the other is a change in mental representations or associations.

One of the most useful ways that the learning domains can be used is to consider them when learning objectives are being developed for instruction. Learning objectives are descriptions of what an individual should know or be able to do once he or she has completed an instructional intervention. In addition to the development of learning objectives, the domains can be useful in planning assessments

Chapter 3 – Needs Analysis

...instructional design is carried out for a purpose: to bring about a particular change. Typically, the change is a need to improve performance of some kind. Attitudes, knowledge, and skills are all areas in which improvement might be needed. Therefore, the need to improve performance can take on different forms, such as increasing a student's knowledge of a particular content area, increasing the productivity of a factory worker, or increasing consumer ease in using a new product.

Need's Analysis Questions:

• What is the change being requested (including who is being asked to change and what is currently taking place)?
• Who is requesting this change?
• Where will this change need to take place?
• Is instruction the most appropriate means for bringing about the desired change?

Models for performance/needs analysis (Human Performance Technology)

• Mager & Pipe's Performance Analysis
• Morrison, Ross, & Kemp Need's Assessment
• Rossett Needs Assessment
  • Determine purpose on either performance problems, new stuff, and mandates
  • Identify who has the information that is needed and where it is located
  • Gather various types of data using the proper research tool
  • Conduct needs assessment by analyzing the data and determine if additional information is necessary
  • Use findings for decision making
• Discrepancy-Based Needs Assessment Model

Needs Analysis Procedure

• Determining the desired change
  • What problem exists or what change is being requested?
  • Who is being asked to change?
  • What is currently taking place in this environment with this individual or individuals?
• The request for desired change
  • After developing a clear understanding of the existing problem or the change being requested, it is important to understand who is asking for the change. This is an extremely important element to understand because it will help you determine the type of intervention that may need to take place, the emotional and political climate of the situation, and the level of support that is present and that will most likely be needed for a change to take place.
  • Once you have the appropriate data that allows you to understand the entire context—the desired change, who is requesting the change, who is being asked to change, and where the change needs to take place—it is time to determine if instruction is the most appropriate intervention. You will need to answer the following question: Is instruction the most appropriate means for solving the problem or bringing about the desired change?

Chapter 4 – Task Analysis

What task analysis solves for the ID:

• It defines the content required to solve the performance problem or alleviate a performance need. This step is crucial because most designers work with unfamiliar content.
• Because the process forces the subject matter expert (SME) to work through each individual step, subtle steps are more easily identified.
• During this process, the designer has the opportunity to view the content from the learner's perspective. Using this perspective, the designer can often gain insight into appropriate teaching strategies.

What a task analysis identifies:

1. the goals and objectives of learning;
2. the operational components of jobs, skills, learning goals, or objectives—that is, it describes what task performers do, how they perform a task or apply a skill, and how they think before, during, and after learning;
3. what knowledge states (declarative, structural, and procedural knowledge) characterize a job or task;
4. which tasks, skills, or goals should be taught—that is, how to select learning outcomes that are appropriate for instructional development;
5. which tasks are most important—which have priority for a commitment of training resources;
6. the sequence in which tasks are performed and should be learned and taught;
7. how to select or design instructional activities, strategies, and techniques to foster learning;
8. how to select appropriate media and learning environments;
9. how to construct performance assessments and evaluation.

According to Jonassen et al. (1999), task analysis is a "process of analyzing and articulating the kind of learning that you expect the learners to know how to perform" (p. 3). They assert that the task analysis process consists of five discrete functions: (1) inventorying tasks; (2) describing tasks; (3) selecting tasks; (4) sequencing tasks and task components; and (5) analyzing tasks and content level. These functions consist of the following activities:

• Inventorying tasks: identifying tasks that need to be developed for instruction.
• Describing tasks: the process of elaborating the tasks identified in the inventory.
• Selecting tasks: prioritizing tasks and choosing those that are more feasible and appropriate if there is a large quantity of tasks.

• Sequencing tasks and task components: defining the sequence in which instruction should occur in order to successfully facilitate learning.

• Analyzing tasks and content level: describing the type of cognitive behavior, physical performance, or affective response required by the tasks

A task analysis should help you answer the following questions, regardless of the approach taken:

1. What is the task that individuals need to be able to accomplish or perform?
2. What are the key components of this task (that is, the skills and knowledge an individual needs in order to successfully complete or perform the task)?
3. What is the sequence in which a task is accomplished or performed and should be learned and taught?
4. How can you determine whether an individual is able to complete the task?

Chapter 5 – Analyzing Learners

There is no single, correct method of learner analysis that every instructional designer uses. However, the goal of every type of learner analysis is the same: to understand and interpret learner characteristics in a way that helps in the design of effective instruction.

While it is important to carefully consider the cultural and psychological aspects of the target audience, the numbers of variables involved in determining in advance precisely what will be "culturally appropriate" or "psychologically optimal" instruction are beyond our current control. The most thorough learner analysis is still a matter of taking a "best guess" at how the instruction should be designed to work efficiently and effectively for the target audience.

Motivation is a complicated subject that deserves continued study; here, we will discuss only its basic elements. Motivation can be essentially divided into two classes: intrinsic and extrinsic. If learners enjoy the instruction for its own sake and take pleasure in the activity, the motivation is said to be intrinsic. If learners participate in the instruction because they anticipate some reward beyond the instruction itself (for example, they are paid or completing the instruction allows them to do something they truly enjoy), the motivation is said to be extrinsic

Robert F. Mager is an author of instructional design texts that have been popular for decades. His approach to learner analysis is a good place to start. Mager (1988) recommends the following procedure:

1. Begin with the realization that a learner analysis is a working document that will not be published or seen by anyone other than yourself and perhaps other members of the instructional design team. It is not necessary to organize the content into specific categories.
2. Write down everything you think you know about the target audience. If it seems challenging to get started, begin with trigger questions, such as: Why are they taking this course? Do they want to be in this course? What training and experience do they have in relation to the subject matter?
3. Describe the range of characteristics whenever possible.

Mager also recommends analyzing and articulating the following about the target audience:

1. Age range.
2. Sex distribution.
3. Nature and range of educational background.
4. Reason(s) for attending the course.
5. Attitude(s) about course attendance.
6. Biases, prejudices, and beliefs.
7. Typical hobbies and other spare time activities.
8. Interests in life other than hobbies.
9. Need-gratifiers (rewards that would work).
10. Physical characteristics.
11. Reading ability.
12. Terminology or topics to be avoided.
13. Organizational membership.
14. Specific prerequisite and entry-level skills already learned.

Other Learner needs models:

• Smaldino, Lowther, and Russell
  • General characteristics
  • Specific entry competencies
  • Learning styles
• Dick, Carey, and Carey
  • Entry skills (similar to Smaldino et al.'s (2012) entry competencies).
  • Prior knowledge of topic area.
  • Attitudes toward content and potential delivery system.
  • Academic motivation.
  • Educational and ability levels.
  • General learning preferences.
  • Attitudes toward the training organization.
  • Group characteristics.
• Smith and Ragan
  • Stable similarities
  • Stable differences
  • Changing similarities
  • Changing differences

Chapter 6 – Instructional Goal and Objectives

Instructional goals and instructional objectives are different from each other. An instructional goal can be a general statement about the intention of the instruction…However, an instructional objective is usually much more specific about how and to what degree the instruction will affect the learners.

Models for objectives:

• Mager
  • Action: Identify the action the learner will take when he or she has achieved the objective
  • Condition: Describe the relevant conditions under which the learner will act
  • Criterion: Specify how well the learner must perform the action
• Dick et al – ABDCs of well-stated objectives
  • Audience: Identify and describe the learners
  • Behavior: Describe what is expected of the learner after receiving instruction
  • Conditions: Describe the setting and circumstances in which the learners' performance will occur
  • Degree: Explain the standard for acceptable performance
• Smaldino et al
  • Cognitive
  • Affective
  • Psychomotor
  • Interpersonal
• Gagne's Hierarchy of Intellectual Skills

Chapter 7 – Organizing Instruction

The eminent instructional designer and scholar Robert Gagne (1916–2002) theorized that there are nine events of instruction (1985):

1. Gain the learners' attention.
2. Inform learners of the objective.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning.
4. Present the stimulus.
5. Provide guidance for the learners.
6. Elicit learner performance.
7. Provide feedback.
8. Assess learner performance.
9. Enhance retention and transfer (varied practice and reviews).

Distance education has a number of appealing features for education and training. Students do not have to travel to a classroom and, in asynchronous situations, they may participate at a time that works best for them. However, there is an interesting opposition of forces at work with distance education.

• Providing immediate feedback to both students and the instructor(s): In instructional settings such as a traditional classroom or distance education, the students and instructors communicate with each other in a way that allows them to adjust their activities according to feedback received. For example, the teacher in a traditional classroom may notice his or her students are looking drowsy and decide it is time for a short break, or the instructor of an online course may receive a number of messages asking for clarification of a particular concept and decide that he or she needs to offer a mini-lesson covering that concept in greater detail.

• Providing immediate feedback to the student alone: Education conducted through programmed instruction does not have an instructor making adjustments to the experience based on learner feedback. The instruction may be programmed to respond to a student's responses, but all possible responses are determined in advance of the student's participation.

Understanding the organization of instruction helps an instructional designer with the following tasks:

• Choosing activities that support remediation and extension by using scope and sequence organization to identify appropriate content for students who need either extra support or an extra challenge.
• Choosing activities that support the needs of a variety of learning styles, selecting a variety of different types of enactive, iconic, and symbolic experiences, and using Dale's Cone as an organizer.
• Selecting activities most appropriate to each instructional event in order to create an effective series of activities for a given lesson or instructional intervention.
• Making available job aids that support the student and allow him or her to focus on the concepts to be learned instead of the steps involved in completing a specific task.
• Choosing activities that are best suited to the delivery method or choosing the best delivery method to meet an individual's or an organization's needs.

Chapter 8 - Learning Environments & Instructional Activities

4 Types of learning environments

• Learner-centered environments: Focus on the attitudes, skills, knowledge, and beliefs that students bring to an instructional setting. In this environment, the instructor uses information about how the learners relate to the content as well as the learners' preconceived ideas or misconceptions to create situations where the learners generate new (and hopefully improved) perceptions of the content.
• Knowledge-centered environments: Focus on the information and activities that help learners develop an understanding of disciplines. In this environment, learners are exposed to well-organized knowledge in order to facilitate planning and strategic thinking.

• Assessment-centered environments: Focus on providing opportunities for feedback and revision. In this environment, testing and critique are used to provide learners with opportunities to rethink and revise their ideas.

• Community-centered environments: Focus on people learning from one another and contributing to the larger societies of people who share common interests and/or goals. In this environment, the connections between the instructional setting and world outside that setting are used to give the content greater meaning and place it in a more global context.

A directed learning environment is one in which the instructional designer has determined specific learning objectives and prescribes structured activities in which participants demonstrate that they have learned by meeting the objectives. Most people are familiar with directed learning environments through personal experience.

An open-ended learning environment differs from a directed learning environment in that the learning goals and/or the method of pursuing those goals are determined in one of three ways:

1.     presenting the learner with a complex problem along with a specific task to complete;

2.     presenting the learner with a complex problem to explore (with no specific task to complete);

3.     helping the learner articulate a personalized problem to be solved or explored.

any open-ended learning environment should include four components to support the learners:

1.     Enabling contexts: articulated perspectives that influence how the approaches are planned and resources are interpreted.

2.     Resources: a range of sources (print, electronic, human) that provide information about the problem.

3.     Tools: the means for engaging and manipulating resources and ideas.

4.     Scaffolding: scaffolding processes support individual learning efforts.

Chapter 9 – Evaluating Learner Achievement

Determining if a learner has reached a high level of success is accomplished through learner evaluation. Learner evaluation helps determine the level of performance or achievement that an individual has attained as a result of instruction. This is established by the extent to which a learner is able to meet instructional goals and objectives.

Most learner evaluations you will help develop will be criterion-referenced (also referred to as minimum-competency or mastery). A learner evaluation that is criterion-referenced indicates that a learner is being judged based on his or her level of competence. Competence is determined by specific criteria, such as being able to answer a specified number of questions or the ability to demonstrate certain skills in a specific amount of time

Millman and Greene (1993) state that answers to several questions need to be obtained before a test is developed. The combination of these answers will help an instructional designer create a test development plan. This plan will help guide the development and eventual implementation of the test:

 What is the purpose of the test?

 Who will be taking the test?

 How much time will be used for testing?

 How will the test be administered?

 What will the test cover?

 What sources of content will be used?

 What are the dimensions of the content?

 Which types of item formats are to be used?

 How many items are available in the item pool, and how many need to be constructed?

 What is the appropriate difficulty and taxonomy level for the items?

 How will the items be grouped and sequenced?

 How will the items/test be scored?

 How will the test be evaluated?

 Will an item analysis be performed?

 Will the reliability and measurement error of the test be assessed?

Guidelines for essay items:

• They should be carefully focused.
• Several shorter questions—rather than fewer longer questions—tend to provide a better assessment of a learner.
• Do not give students a choice of questions to answer; have all learners answer the same questions.
• Inform learners of how the questions will be graded; if spelling is important, inform the learners. Understanding how a question will be graded will help learners focus on what is important. This can be accomplished by providing students with a rubric prior to completing the essay questions.
• The length of time needed to answer essay questions can vary greatly among learners.
• Learners need preparation for taking essay questions.
• Before grading, review the major points that should or could be discussed in each answer.
• When grading, read through and grade the same question for each learner before moving on to the next question.
• When grading, it is always desirable to have more than one grader.
• When grading, read through the entire answer once and then check it over for factual information.

Guidelines for evaluating a skill:

• When evaluating a skill, both process and the product can be evaluated. Determine whether both or just one will be evaluated; generally, both are evaluated. The product is the end result or outcome of the skill (for example, a filled vial of blood correctly labeled and stored).

• When evaluating the process, the following elements can be included: following a proper series of steps, using tools or instruments properly, or completing the skill in a certain timeframe.

Chapter 10 – Determining the Success of the Instructional Design Product and Process

Formative evaluation is used throughout the instructional design process to gather data that can be used to provide feedback on how the process is going. It is especially useful during the early stages of the instructional design process. The feedback allows an instructional designer to make improvements to the instruction before it is completely developed.

Design reviews are conducted after various phases of the instructional design process, such as the needs analysis, task analysis, goals and objective analysis, and learner analysis. Design reviews help to verify the accuracy of information at each stage of the instructional design process before instruction is developed.

Expert reviews are conducted to gather information about the instruction to determine if it is accurate and current. Various experts—such as content experts, instructional design experts, pedagogical experts, and experts on the learners—can be used to provide various perspectives on the instruction.

Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (2007) advocate a basic model for formative evaluation based on the work of Gooler (1980). Gooler’s approach follows these eight steps:

1. purpose
2. audience
3. issues
4. resources
5. evidence
6. data gathering techniques
7. analysis
8. reporting

There are three main phases to this approach: planning, conducting, and reporting. Phase one includes steps one through five, while phase two includes steps six and seven. Phase three is the eighth and final step, reporting the results

The first step—determining the purpose or purposes of the evaluation—is done in consultation with the client. The two most common purposes are to improve the instruction that is being developed and to satisfy administration requirements of the client you are working for.

The audience of the evaluation is important to determine because it will establish the types of information that need to be collected and reported. The client will be able to help determine who the intended audience will be. Conducting an evaluation for multiple audiences should be avoided because it will be difficult to satisfy varying needs within a single report. It is best to try to narrow the audience down as much as possible.

Phase two—conducting the evaluation—includes determining the data collection techniques that will be used, gathering the data, and analyzing the data.

Step seven—analyzing the data—should reflect the purpose of a formative evaluation: to provide usable and useful information that helps the instructional designer improve instruction.

The final phase—step eight—is reporting the results of the evaluation to the primary audience. This is typically done as an evaluation report, with the format of the report tailored to the audience the report will be disseminated to.

Summative evaluation takes place after an instructional intervention has been implemented. The major goal of a summative evaluation is to gather data that allow for its effectiveness to be determined. Did the instruction bring about the desired changes? Were the goals of the client met? These are two major questions that summative evaluations help to answer.

Kirkpatrick’s Four Levels of Evaluation:

• Level 1—reactions—attempts to provide data on how participants reacted to the training. Did participants enjoy the training? Was the training relevant to the participants?
• Level 2—learning—is conducted to determine whether participants’ skills, knowledge, or attitudes changed as a result of the training. Determining this is much more laborious than Level 1 because it requires gathering data at multiple times. Typically, pretests and post-tests are used to measure these changes.
• Level 3—transfer—attempts to answer the question of whether the newly acquired skills, knowledge, or attitudes are being used by participants in their real-world environments. In other words, have participants transferred what they learned in the training into their everyday environments?
• Level 4—results—attempts to evaluate a training program’s effectiveness in business measures, such as increased sales, improved product quality, fewer on-the-job accidents, and so forth.

Morrison

1. Specifying program objectives: Revisit the instructional goals and objectives of the instructional intervention that was developed.
2. Determining the evaluation design for each objective: How will data be collected that will help determine if the learning goals and objectives have been met? Determine what types of data are needed.
3. Developing data collection instruments and procedures for each objective: Appropriate data collection instruments and procedures were discussed earlier in this chapter. Pretests, post-tests, questionnaires, and observations are all examples of data collection instruments or procedures.
4. Carrying out the evaluation: It is advised that data are collected from the beginning stages of the project. This will ensure that the necessary data are collected, especially data regarding costs and time involvement. Data collection may need to be scheduled.
5. Analyzing the results from each instrument.
6. Interpreting the results.
7. Disseminating the results and conclusions: Develop a summative evaluation report (refer to the previous section on Smith and Ragan (1999) to see how an evaluation report can be formatted). Individual discussions and group presentations are often useful (and required by the client) to disseminate evaluation findings.

Chapter 11 – Instructional Media Production Management

The roles and responsibilities of the members of any production team depend on the type of product being created. For example, a team responsible for producing computer-based multimedia might include the following:

• Production manager: responsible for the organization and timing of the production. The production manager ensures that everyone knows what he or she should be doing and when specific tasks need to be accomplished. The production manager may also be called on to resolve conflict within the team.
• Subject matter expert (SME): an individual who is a specialist and authority in the content area of the product (e.g., an astronomer helping with a product that teaches the basics of stellar cartography).
• Writer: responsible for generating text, scripts, and documentation.
• Art director: responsible for the product’s “look and feel” by specifying such things as color schemes, artwork, and typefaces. The art director oversees the efforts of the graphic artists.
• Graphic artist: responsible for creating the graphic elements specified by the art director.
• Sound designer: responsible for designing and producing audio elements.
• Video director: responsible for gathering and/or creating video elements.
• Video editor: responsible for preparing video elements specified by the video director.
• Interface designer: responsible for specifying the product’s human–computer interactions. The interface designer oversees the efforts of the programmers.
• Programmer: responsible for making a working version of the software.
• Talent: the actors whose bodies, faces, and/or voices interpret the writer’s scripts.

Prototyping is a common method of production (this is true for automobiles, architecture, animation, and software development) with myriad examples of successful applications of this method. Rapid prototyping is a production strategy that requires starting with a very sketchy idea that evolves through multiple prototypes to arrive at a finished piece. Rapid prototyping requires the evaluation and revision of each prototype as part of the production process.

We recommend ongoing, iterative evaluation of the product as it develops. In the earliest stages of pre-production and production, product ideas and rough sketches can be evaluated through expert review. An expert review is soliciting input from a person or persons with a great deal of experience with the type of instructional media under development. Because of his or her experience, an expert can gain a sense of the production team’s vision from very rough drafts (a cocktail napkin with a few sketches and a verbal description is often enough to give an expert an idea of the finished product).

Chapter 12 – Visual Design for Instructional Media

In The non-designer’s design book (2015), author Robin Williams presents four basic principles of visual design: alignment, contrast, repetition, and proximity. Williams points out that these four principles are interconnected, and one does not often see one of these four aspects of design applied independently. In creating an effective and appealing design, you apply all four principles simultaneously.

Alignment

Alignment is what leads the reader through the design (this is sometimes called “flow”). Nothing should be incorporated into the design without careful consideration of its placement. One common alignment strategy is to have all the headings line up with each other, with indented subheadings and/or body text beneath each heading.

Contrast

Contrast distinguishes different elements of a design. For example, make headings stand out from body text by using very different typefaces for each. Bold and italic text contrasts with regular text. Contrasting colors can be used (black and white are the most essential contrasting color combination), as can contrasting image and type sizes.

Repetition

Repetition conveys a sense of deliberate and carefully planned design. Simple elements used over again give the design a unified feeling (for example, a large graphic used at the top of a page might be used again at the bottom of the page as a small repeating graphic forming a line).

Proximity

Proximity places together elements that relate to each other, creating one or more “visual units” within the larger design that help organize the information (for example, a picture of a person standing on a scale and text describing weight-loss strategies might be placed very near each other to create one visual unit).